An academic of good standing. I currently work as a clergyman and academic writer. I hold degree and postgraduate qualifications (BA Hons; MSc Econ; DSc Econ) and also teach part-time, in social care and allied disciplines. have undertaken consultancy projects for Government Agencies in the UK; specialising in social housing, management and social care. I have over the last 10 years, held the post of examiner/moderator for serveral leading academic bodies and awarding bodies

Sample 1

AN ACTION PLAN FOR IMPLEMENTATING HEALTH PROMOTION IN A CHOSEN LOCAL PRACTICE

Topic: Obesity targeting teenagers 11 – 15 years of age.

Introduction

It is apparent from the recent developments in child health that obesity is a primary cause of problems in child healthcare. The rise in the levels of diabetics in the teenage years is becoming endemic of a growing level of lethargic and unexercised conscious teenagers who are living on diets of fast foods and soda pops. This has been highlighted in the trendy yet painful changes to the school meals system; in which we now see a withdrawl of the culture of “chips with everything” to a more switched on diet of five-a-day fruit and vegetable choices on our school menus.

The government legislation and directives have been developed to move our growing oversized school teenager population towards a healthier diet and exercise programme that prepares our teenage population for adulthood. In “Measuring Childhood Obesity. Guidance to Primary Care Trusts” DOH (2006), it states that:

“The Public Service Agreement (PSA) target on obesity is the Government’s first, high level response to the major public health problem posed by the continuing rise in obesity. The target is challenging – ‘halting the year on year rise in obesity among children aged under 11 by 2010 in the context of a broader strategy to tackle obesity in the population as a whole’. Halting the rise in obesity goes against recent trends – no other country has managed to achieve this and it will require a step change.” DOH (2006).

This statement clearly acknowledges the value of this study and in part provides a view to the action plan required to ensure that targets and thresholds are reached to stem this endemic tide of obesity in our teenage population. The World Health Organisation’s report into obesity in young people during 2004 gave rise to concerns about this endemic problem, stating that:

“WHO global strategy on diet, physical activity and health (2004): states that ‘the role of government is crucial in achieving lasting change in public health. Governments have a primary steering and stewardship role in initiating and developing the strategy, ensuring that it is implemented and monitoring its impact in the long term’.”

This statement came well before the ongoing debate and crucial actions taken in UK Government circles. The Scottish Parliament took forward many of the WHO initiatives prior to its partner government of Westminster; in that the “Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network: publishes guidelines on the management of obesity in children and young people (Guideline 69)” www.sign.ac.uk/guidelines/published/index.html#Child. This became the starting point for Scottish action on obesity in teenagers and younger children; which allowed for the development of: The Weight Management Learning Programme:

“… [This] is collaboration between the Health Education Board for Scotland (now NHS Health Scotland), the Scottish National Board for Nursing, Midwifery and Health Visiting, and the Scottish Council for Post-graduate Medical and Dental Education. It is a very practical and helpful site for planning a weight management programme”. www.hebs.scot.nhs.uk/learningcentre/weightmanagement/childhood

Therefore, given this brief overview of core research it is a subject worthy of investigation and focus for a plan of action to provide some part answers to tackling obesity in teenagers.

In this study, I have decided to consider the Tannahill Model of health promotion as the main aspect of my preparation of an action plan. Having made some brief studies into the work of London boroughs I have decided to use the London borough of Waltham Forest; which through the medium of its literature shows clear partnership and collaboration with its Primary Health Care Agencies and other local target groups and sectors, in the tackling of teen and childhood obesity.

Therefore, firstly, this study will consider the Tannahill Model against the background of literature on health promotion models. Secondly, we will consider the subject of teenage obesity and the debate currently ongoing in literature with some reference to the demographic; sociological and physiological trends. Thirdly, we shall consider the current and planned documented work of the chosen borough with reference to its activities; partnerships and strategies implemented and being planned. There is also a brief discussion of evaluative methods that can and are used in this type of study and finally, I shall prepare an action plan, for action towards achieving health promotion in this endemic area of concern. The Action on Obesity states:

“Childhood obesity is a serious problem with profound health and social consequences. It has received substantial media attention recently due partly to the rapid increase in prevalence across the UK as well as internationally. This rise in prevalence began to occur in the UK in the mid 1980s with a rapid escalation occurring most noticeably over the last 10 years. Current statistics suggest the prevalence of obesity in children is four times higher today than it was 30 years ago”. www.aso.org.uk

This statement is not isolated. We can see from the wealth of literature that there is a pandemic problem across the UK with regard to the levels of childhood obesity. This has been the subject of Government intervention, incentives and programmes that will be cited in this study. Caroline Flint, the Public Health Minister, said: “We recognise we need to do more. We will continue to work across government and the public sector, and with the food, leisure and sports industries to ensure that we stay on track to meet our target.” (The Times 2006). But, in the interim, we can cite other theorists who are raising concerns towards this ever-growing trend amongst our teenagers to maintain high levels of weight gain with little or no consequence of future health-related problems and illnesses. Caroline Swain, Executive Director of Weight Concern, said: “If we are to preserve the health of the next generation, there is a desperate need for detailed research into what is triggering this rise, as well as practical action to encourage families to adopt healthier lifestyles.”

Amanda Eden, Care Adviser at Diabetes UK, said: “As obesity increases, the average age of the diagnosis of type 2 diabetes lowers. We will soon be seeing our children growing up losing limbs and becoming blind as they develop the serious complications of having the condition.” The Times 2006.

This is stark reading within the body of a growing wealth of research that is not predominantly scaremongering in the wider medium; but on the contrary it reflects the growing concerns of both an academic and professional medical audience that is trying to facilitate a move towards defusing this growing health time-bomb.

There are a number of models that support the theoretical study of health promotion; they all have their own worth and standing in literature. In brief I shall describe and critically discuss those that are more pertinent to this area of study.

The Tannahill Model (1985). This is a theoretical process of enhancing health and reducing risk of ill-health through the overlapping spheres of health education, health protection, and disease prevention. These three spheres of activity are clearly remote from the treatment, or care, of the subject for a more action-based model of ensuring that where possible, care and treatment are not needed. Explained in reverse order and using obesity as an example subject, these Tannahill spheres would dictate: disease prevention through, for example, lifestyle changes such as diet; education that informs on the need for dietary changes to minimise the level of weight gain; health protection, in the intervention of government in the quality and content of school meals; school pupil dietary advice and food labelling. However, there is often a downside to such intervention at such a strategic level, in that young people may choose to boycott school meal services for outside catering services. Nevertheless, what is also clear from this model is that it does not label or make social statements regarding the subject or persons engaged in the area of health promotion activities. Therefore, it works provided that the encouragement towards healthy eating and lifestyle is maintained.

The Stages of Change Model, Prochaska and Diclemente (1984): this model relies on the level of interest in the desired outcome that the participant engages in the project being offered or the re-education of behaviour being planned. This model prepares the participant to consider the consequences of actions for changing behaviour, the desired outcome; this in turn leads to a contract commitment to make the changes. An example of this strategy can be seen in most anti-smoking programmes. For weight loss this is also a common commitment strategy for organisations that promote peer work or group dynamics, e.g. Weight Watchers, Slimmer World.

Health Belief Model, Janz and Becker 1984: this model relies on participants being engaged in real honest perceptions of their own situation, its cause, condition and effect on well-being. For example, someone who is obese takes a hard look at their weight problem and its effects on lifestyle. The model then engaged an aspect of education, in that the participants are able to consider the demographic and sociological impact of action and inaction; against the stark choice of inaction and consequences. The upside being the likelihood of action and the wider consequences for family/society.

. The three models mentioned are all proven to work in the world of obesity and weight-loss programming. The interesting factor is that they all use levels of pursuit towards the participant in engaging an interest in welfare and re-appraisal of a related health problem. Furthermore, they also provide a level of education towards changing behaviour patterns and perceptions of oneself.

Whatever the model that is used, each has its own merits and distinct methods of working. In this study, the Tannahill Model has a far-reaching strategy that encompasses three levels of precise health promotion that are pertinent to the needs of teenagers who are obese in that it provides: a disease-prevention strategy and programme; education through documentation, health awareness events and classroom teaching; and health protection, through the involvement of government incentives, strategies and regulations that now govern our school meals services and those who provide them. The government incentive scheme to measure obesity in school-age children states that:

“PCTs are free to develop a measuring model that fits their local circumstances, reflecting available resources and relationships. A variety of models of measurement have already been developed around the country. Some of these models are described later, along with the contact details of those involved. The examples are presented in order to share ideas, approaches and information about lessons learnt.” DOH (2006).

Therefore, it is certain that although government has taken a clear lead to ensure the future of healthcare, through the target of tackling obesity, health organisations, local authorities and interest parties are free to develop models of measurement and strategy that inform and specifically address needs in their own geographical area.

In Forecasting Obesity to 2010 Joint Health Service Unit (2006) a clear guidance is given against the current and forecasted figures for obesity during the next four years. This report is stark reading and provides some clear pictures and appraisal of the demographic and sociological trends that are now endemic of obesity and its future trends in the UK.

In order to understand the figurative aspect of this report, and to enable further understanding of this study, we must cite the percentage formula used within the context of this report:

“Among children, this report has used the UK National Body Mass Index (BMI) percentile classification to describe childhood overweight and obesity among children aged 2–15:

Description BMI centile for child’s exact age Not overweight/obese 5th centile or below Overweight Over 85th to 95th centile Obese Over 95th centile”
Forecasting Obesity to 2010 Joint Health Service Unit (2006)

This report is by far the widest survey of obesity in children in the UK; and as such is worthy of direct citation to impart a further understanding of the endemic and steadily growing problem of obesity in teenagers in the UK. Therefore, I have deliberately cited three specific areas that are currently engaging the wider debate: gender; ethnicity and social class, which will have important implications for the action plan being prepared.

Gender:
“…The estimated number of children aged 2–15 by their BMI status. Approximately, 643,513 boys and 613,048 girls were overweight in 2003 with a further 746,662 boys and 675,983 girls who were obese.

Ethnicity:
“Within non-white ethnic groups, it is estimated that 128,443 boys and 101,496 girls in 2003 were obese (22% and 18% of non-white ethnic groups respectively). However, caution should be taken with these figures as the base sizes for boys and girls within non-white ethnic groups were small.

Social Class:
“Among all boys who were classified obese, a greater number lived in non-manual households than manual households: 382,253 compared with 345,909. The reverse was true for girls, whereby a greater number who were categorised as obese lived in manual rather than non-manual households (337,199 and 328,365 respectively). It is also important to note that the proportion of girls who were obese was significantly higher among those from manual households (19%) than non-manual households (14%). Among boys, no significant difference was detected.”

Forecasting Obesity to 2010 Joint Health Service Unit (2006)

We can now move to discuss the measures that are being implemented in the London borough of Waltham Forest. This borough is working in partnership with a number of organisations including its local PCT and its many integrated partners.

But before we move on to discuss the ongoing direction of the borough and its impact work with teenage obesity we must firstly link local authority to national government directives and incentives. In this respect, it is worth noting that the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister (now Department for Communities) has produced a toolkit for local authorities to ensure good practice in developing partnership links in its local area. This mandatory tool, when used correctly, will produce a measurable set of strategic targets that can be measured and added to the wider central government targets for the communities’ programmes.

This Local Area Agreement Toolkit provides good advice, guidance and model documentation to ensure that local authorities and their respective partners formalise and strategise in accordance with national frameworks and directives, all of which can be measured and retraced into statistical data for further analysis and planning opportunities.

Stated in the body of this toolkit is clear evidence that: “The core of the Children and Young People's Block is the ‘Every Child Matters: Change for Children’ framework”.

Furthermore this is clearly supported in the Government’s strategic aims that, every child, whatever their background is “…to have the support they need to…be healthy; stay safe; enjoy and achieve through learning; make a positive contribution to society and achieve economic well being”. This core aim also focuses on the needs of teenagers whose needs are to be strategised separately from those of earlier years.

The core emphasis of the whole LAA Toolkit is the requirements for funding and the obtaining of such funding under the government targets, and strategies. In so doing local authorities and their partner organisations should allow for the crossing of target areas to ensure that the outcomes for strategic impact in ”reducing child obesity, youth crime etc…” to ensure the best fit solutions for their authorities.

The London borough of Waltham Forest has been engaged in the strategic planning of incentives for the reduction in childhood obesity in its area; this has been seen in the reports, minutes and strategies being deployed across the borough with its partner agencies. In this respect we can cite from the council’s minutes such emphasis and directions being taken by the “Waltham Forest Working Together Partnership LSP Group” which met in March 2006 to discuss the development of a strategy for reducing obesity in school-age children.

At this meeting they discussed the DOH Guidelines, (cited above), recommending that children of all ages are measured for their BMI, until the year 2010. In this respect, as directed, the Department of Health would engage a suitable measuring system that would suit the needs of the borough. The partnership had written to EduAction, another programme of engaging the health and welfare of young people in the borough, to ascertain their involvement.

Citing from the minutes of that meeting, we can see three specific areas that have been taken forward in the development of a strategic action plan to target obesity in teenagers and younger children in the borough and these are:

“Support from governors and PTAs would be valuable to gain agreement for population surveillance on child obesity.

It may be possible to map the ethnicity of school children in the obesity study by using the school roll for that cohort.

There is a reward grant target around physical activity in the LAA and discussion needs to take place with the Council’s Leisure Services department with regard to delivery.

A sensible approach to planning may be to differentiate between activity targets and outcome targets, and to use pre-existing indicators wherever possible.

It was AGREED that the draft action plan should be worked up into a Completed document”.

WALTHAM FOREST WORKING TOGETHER – LSP PUBLIC HEALTH EXECUTIVE PARTNERSHIP– FRIDAY 31st MARCH 2006

The minutes show that the Local Authority and its Health Partners have clearly understood the strategic strategy and guidance of the Department of Health directives in that they have discussed and agreed on the implementation of a measurement strategy; a planning incentive towards the procurement and formal understanding of the raw data once analysed for its own health needs. It also shows forward thinking and teamwork in partnering and delivering the necessary data streaming of services to inform future health needs. This in itself gives an indicator that this borough has, in some part, the Tannahill Model in place in that it is providing clear strategy for health promotion.

The other interesting aspect of this set of minutes reflects the reward incentive grant aspect of the discussion in involving the leisure services department in promoting physical activities amongst young people who are, or may be, obese.

In this respect, in a further authority document this involvement is taken further into a project. The council has started to consider a pilot scheme of bike riding and training for school-age children and young people, “improving, health and fitness through walking and cycling, reducing the risks of sedentary illnesses and obesity”. Waltham Forest School Travel plans Strategy (2006).

This project also has a unique aspect in that it will provide maintain bikes and training in their use for those interested. The STPS states that it:

“Provides on road cycle training at all secondary schools within Waltham Forest. Participation varies from year to year and will depend on the enthusiasm of teachers or 'champions' in the school. As of spring 2005, the Council employs 5 cycle trainers who work directly with schools to set up programmes of training.”

This is also to be extended to parents to encourage further low usage of cars and allied vehicles to move pupils to and from schools across the borough.

But, what is of note in all the council’s strategies across its departments is its clear desire to be young-people friendly, targeting all aspects of their needs, but primarily encouraging a growth in healthy lifestyles for the future of its residents and services. This is summed up by the emphasis of the Schools Travel Plan Strategy:

“The Council will encourage all schools to adopt the ‘healthy school’ award and introduce healthier school meals. Providing children with a healthy, nutritious diet is an essential requirement for children to enjoy an active healthy lifestyle.” STPS (2006)

This brings us back to a theme borne out in the literature that we as a nation need to encourage and sustain exercise among our young people to stem the direction of obesity within the growing younger population. This is reflected in a report cited in The Times:

“Cycling England released a survey yesterday showing that almost three-quarters of parents do not think that their children do enough exercise at school. Phillip Darnton, its chairman, said: ‘Bike to School Week, which starts on Monday, is a great opportunity for young people to give cycling a go. Cycling to school is not only fun and inexpensive, it is also a great way of introducing exercise into your child’s daily routine and establishing a good habit of activity for later life’.” The Times (2006).

This clearly shows that the borough chosen for this study is clearly at the forefront of strategies to move its borough towards a healthier lifestyle and culture.

Evaluation of any strategy is clearly important. In this respect, there are many evaluative formulae that can be used to measure the ongoing focus and strategic impact of a given study area. Obesity, as we have seen, is measured in many different ways; this includes the collection of quantitative data, as in the government collation of obesity trends in young people, which can be an indicator of trends: social, demographic, ethnicity and age related. Alternatively, it can include qualitative data that involves the wider sociological and psychological impact of this area of study. This may include, but is not exhaustive, case studies, written data analysis, interviews, questionnaires, workshops and symposiums.

In studying obesity it is clear that it is considered that a mix of both quantitative data and qualitative methods bring together a wider understanding of the subject area of teen obesity. We can see this from the data clean in many of the studies referenced for this study, including the government statistics and findings of years of research and investigation.

However, within the context of the action plan being prepared, I would consider a mix of methodologies to reflect the wealth of literature that informs the subject of obesity and the many aspects of gathering data ongoing in this subject area.

Bibliography

Gilbert N (et al.) (1993) Researching Social Life, Sage, London.
Handy C (1993) Understanding Organisations (Fourth Edition), Penquin, London.
Hawkes N (2006) Ever-fatter teenagers are health timebomb, Health Editor, The Times
Haralambos M & Holborn M (1995) Sociology: Themes and Perspectives (Forth Edition) Collins Education, London.
Kumar R (1999) Research Methodologies: Sage, London
. “Local Area Agreement Toolkit” ODPM 2005.
“Measuring Childhood Obesity. Guidance to Primary Care Trusts” DOH (2006)
WHO global strategy on diet, physical activity and health (2004)
Saunders M, Lewis P & Thornhill A (2000) Research Methods for Business Students. Prentice Hall, London.
WALTHAM FOREST WORKING TOGETHER – LSP PUBLIC HEALTH EXECUTIVE PARTNERSHIP– FRIDAY 31st MARCH 2006
Watham Forest School Travel Plan Strategy EDUACTION (2006).
Internet Sources: http://news.bbc.co.uk
www.kingsfund.org.uk/resources/publications/securing_good.html
http://www.communities.gov.uk
www.aso.org.uk
www.dfes.gov.uk
www.childhoodobesity.net
www.nationalobesityforum.org.uk
www.hebs.scot.nhs.uk/learningcentre/weightmanagement/childhood
www.sign.ac.uk/guidelines/published/index.html#Child

Sample 2

Vocational Educational Training Systems
• The state no longer has a role to play in vocational education and training (VET) systems. Discuss with reference to at least one national VET system.
• It is important to bear in mind that the content of the answer will depend on the argument that you wish to put forward in answer to the question and not solely on the concepts that the question explicitly identifies.

Throughout the post-war years of the 20th century we have seen a complete, and yet incomplete, overhaul of the education sector across all age groups, abilities, communities; which has re-invented, reappraised, reported and legislated to ensure the best for the future. But no area of learning has been as overhauled as vocational education and training (VET); in this respect it is clearly a system of education worthy of exploration.

The Callaghan speech in 1976 can be seen as the herald for the overhaul of systems that we now accept and understand as Vocational Education and Training (VET). In his research paper” Constructing vocational education: from TVEI to GNVQ”, Yeomans makes it clear that:

“…In the wake of Callaghan's speech, the subsequent 'Great Debate' and the election of a Conservative government a plethora of White Papers were produced containing a wide variety of proposals for the reform of vocational education” Yeomans (1996).

If we consider the White Papers of the Conservative Government in that era that invoked and created The Manpower Commission (MSC), Youth Training Schemes (YTS), Community Enterprise; to be supplanted by Employment Training (ET) and GNVQ; we find interesting similarities to today’s New Labour Government strategies, where we move into the realm of New Deal, Modern Apprenticeships. It begs the question, have we just reinvented programmes, that the State can control, where all vocational and allied educational learning systems are curricula-controlled, regulated and frozen in a timeline of strict coherence of automated learning that is mirrored across the learning functions of any setting for, to coin the new concept in its true context, “lifelong learning”.

But, given the complexity of such a system in the United Kingdom (UK), how do we define a system called “VET”; and then move to explore one aspect of a complex concept across, a continually changing and evolving system of state intervention, control and reinvention? These are just some of the questions that will need to be explored in this essay. To enable the coherence of this essay, it is poignant to give definition to the term “Vocational Education & training” and its common acronym “VET” that we shall use in this paper.

Therefore, this essay will consider the concept of VET, its definition, social historical context, currency and impact in today’s education system. In order to ensure clear understanding of the VET system, we shall also conceptualise VET in work-based training systems and, in particular, the impact and development of the Modern Apprenticeship programme. This will be explored at the macro and micro management levels of state control, intervention and initiative. This will allow for the question of this essay to be fully explored, contrasted and compared with the wealth of literature against the actual active changes within the wider operational management of the VET setting.

There are many and complex definitions of the VET concept, at this stage therefore, it is important to conceptualise the term, in a framed context, before proceeding to discuss its socio-historical background. Two specific definitions capture the term succinctly:

The Australian National Training Authority (ANTA) which describes VET as:

“Vocational education and training (VET) provides skills and knowledge for work, enhances employability and assists learning throughout life.” ANTA (2004);

And West (1999) who identifies three types of VET:

“The area of vocational education and training (VET) has a high profile within the EU. However, it is important to stress that there is no internationally accepted set of definitions of types of VET. Despite this lack of international consensus, three main types of VET can be distinguished (Descy and Westphalen, 1998): (a) initial vocational education and training (IVT); (b) continuing vocational education and training (CVT); (c) vocational education and training for the unemployed (VETU)”.

Having now conceptualised and defined the concept, we can move to consider the social-historical debate that enshrines the development in fluidity of the VET system within the UK. It is not within the context of this essay to explore pre-war or indeed, the wider debates of the 1970s educational reforms; but to set them in the context of the actual relationship to the ongoing VET debate and the consequential impact that was to change the face of vocation education for decades and decades to come.

Lord Callaghan’s Ruskin speech of 1976 provoked a national debate, but its focus was clearly on schools and universities with no real impact or concerns given to further education colleges (then known as technical colleges) or vocational training in the workplace. Nevertheless, the impetus, or the neglected omission of these areas brought about a debate that would last generations and provide incentives and impacts that would be felt at the grassroots of vocational learning.

VET in the UK was not centred in institutions, like other European systems where priority was given to close ties to vocational qualifications (VQ) and the employment market. The UK approach to VET, even at the height of its close relationship with the economy, always reflected its inferior status: neglect by national policy-makers, lack of national coherence, and an absence of general education or theoretical learning within which to frame technical skills.

Technical colleges were transformed into colleges of further education during the 70s; two clear trends emerged from this step. First, there was the growth of academic courses for all ages and abilities. This led to stimulated expansion of higher education, becoming more accessible to all ages. The second trend was the decline of traditional employment, the growth in unemployment from the mid 70s and the realisation that unemployment was not to be a temporary social and economic problem.

Government provided a focused answer in the creation of what some might see today as an early quango, in the form of the Manpower Services Commission (MSC) which developed schemes for unemployed school-leavers, such as the youth opportunities training scheme. The youth training scheme (YTS) was intended to be a modernised apprenticeship for everybody, committed to providing places for all 16- and 17-year-old school-leavers who were out of work in order to enhance their "employability". In retrospect it was seen as:

“…an attempt to align education more closely to the 'needs' of industry and commerce and rectify some of the knowledge, skill and attitude deficits of school leavers. This type of instrumental, economic analysis remains important in political debates about education across the main political parties.” Yeomans (1996)

The continuation of mixed vocational and formal courses within the setting of further education up to the incorporation of colleges, where the colleges moved out of local authority control to be more independent and coherent in their delivery of programmes that met the need of localised economic and sustainable development.

Despite this move of central government to strengthen the abilities of the post-16 education sector in a free market economy, to allow for competitive and commercial incentives against the backdrop of localised business needs, the mix of responses to learning and development strategies has still involved, invoked and brought about government incentives, intervention and control setting, through remodelling, measurement and inspection. But what should be seen in clarity is that:

“There is still relatively little discussion about whether vocational education (or any form of education) should, or can, play the functional role assigned to it by the prevailing instrumental discourse within the economic system. It remains axiomatic for most politicians that education and training, if only we can get it right, will have strong and tangible economic benefits.” Yeomans (1996)

Now VET enters another significant period of change brought about by New Labour strategy: this restructuring of the post-16 system;

“Still the cry goes up from politicians and employers that the British workforce is inadequately educated and trained. Still unflattering comparisons are made with our partners/competitors in Europe and further afield (Prais, 1995; Smithers, 1993). Still the search is on for a more effective system of vocational education and training.” Yeomans (1996)

The demise of the training and enterprise councils (TEC) and adult and community education (ACE) as we had known it; to be reborn and reformed, through a restructuring in the formal establishment of the Learning and Skills Council (LSC) system in April 2001. This lateral thinking of the State to be more accountable within the VET structure has, in part, reincarnated the TEC in another set of clothing, albeit now under state control and not autonomous as its previous incarnation. Interesting enough is the mission of the new LSC:

“We have a single goal: to improve the skills of England’s young people and adults to ensure we have a workforce of world-class standard.

The LSC is responsible for planning and funding high quality education and training for everyone in England other than those in universities.

Our vision is that by 2010, young people and adults in England have knowledge and skills matching the best in the world and are part of a truly competitive workforce.” LSC (2006)

This statement, found on the LSC website, has overtones of its previous incarnation, where it a “hands off” approach was the focus for the development of sector-led needs towards an employable workforce. It is also worth noting that the LSC now has to date 47 integral parts or sub-sets of itself. These replaced the TECs in their regional settings across England. They undertake similar, but not identical, responsibilities to the old TEC functions. Their inception and many counterparts were a creation of a Conservative government initiative that survived the early years of the Labour administration, to be demised in the wake of the reforming strategies that have effectively circumnavigated previous political initiatives for VET schemes.

This re-appraisal of VET opens up the debate once more, to explore the necessity for the State’s role in such developments. In Page & Hillage’s paper, Vocational Education and Training in the UK, Page clearly inferred that the state influences its training system, with the capacity and desire to involve engagement and debate with business:

“There has been increasing employer influence on institutions and training structures, and changes have been made to incorporate employer engagement so that the state-influenced training system best meets what businesses say they need. This market-led approach is in contrast to much of the training policy across Europe.” Page & Hillage (2006)

The interesting fact that the UK has some comparison to that of its European partners is not in itself unique. But what is of some interest is that the EU partners have been prioritising vocational education for many decades, alongside that of its labour markets. This is a coherent message from the new Federation of Awarding Bodies (FAB) whose members validate vocational qualifications and approve delivery centres across the UK. This response to the Government’s Report “Skills Strategy”, “21st Century Skills Realising Our Potential Individuals, Employers, Nation” makes stark reading and offers some direct advice to government in ensuring that VET is prioritised.

“The English system is complicated enough for employers and individuals to negotiate without having to try to understand and put together the various national systems.” FAB (2003)

“SSCs should focus on analyzing and identifying the skill needs of their sector and ensure the supply of up-to-date national occupational standards that are fit for purpose and benchmarked against European and International standards. With only two SSCs licensed currently, there is a great danger that this important role will not be fully fulfilled over the short to medium term. Urgent action is needed to ensure that work on national occupational standards is not threatened by the commitment to the development of a strategic Skills for Business Network.” FAB (2003)

Considering the FAB concern that only two of the new Sector Skills Council (SSCs) had been licensed at that stage, they are worthy of note, and since the report was published most sectors now have their own SSC. These new, part-public funded organisations are now needed to look to bring a micro understanding to most, if not all, VET systems.

This reform of the VET system also has a strategic umbrella organisation called “The Sector Skills Development Agency SSDA”, The SSDA website explains its function as:

“The Sector Skills Development Agency (SSDA) is responsible for funding, supporting and monitoring the network of Sector Skills Councils (SSCs). The SSDA is a non-departmental public body with its main base in South Yorkshire and representatives across the UK. The organisation is led by Chair Margaret Salmon and Chief Executive Mark Fisher, both of whom were appointed by the Secretary of State for Education and Skills SSDA.” (2006)

Sector by sector, each employment sector has an SSC, with acronym to match it. As an example we have the SSC that governs the Health & Care Sector, which has seen more upheaval in legislative reform than many of its comparative industries under this current Government’s reforms. From this organisational example we can show the ongoing changes across the VET system of Modern Apprenticeship schemes, as most have been founded in the same annotated system of programming. To include: the NVQ, Key Skills and a Technical Certificate.

Albeit briefly we must also mention that, during this upheaval of changes across the VET schemes, we have also had a complete overhaul of the National Qualifications Framework (NQF), which has been invoked and monitored by the Qualification Curriculum Authority (QCA) and another agency of the Department of Education and Skills (DES). It has also been raised in academic circles that this upheaval has done nothing to procure strong quality assurance and cohesion. Roodhouse (2006) states that:

“The failure of the Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) and the Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education (QAA) to coordinate their frameworks and respective procedures in the national interest is discussed.”

Each SSC was/is responsible for regulating qualification frameworks across its own industry; therefore, it could be suggested that each sector has changed itself, under the strategic SSDA, Sector Qualification Reform Programme (SQRP), and its reasoning:

“The Sector Qualifications Reform Programme (SQRP) is part of a broad reaching initiative to radically change the landscape of vocational qualifications in the UK.

It aims to ensure that the qualifications and other learning programmes available across the UK are more effective in equipping people with the skills that employers want and that learners need to secure and maintain employment. In so doing it will contribute to the UK's business productivity, by ensuring that employers are able to make the most of the skills of their employees.” SSDA (2006)

This sector’s SSC is known as “Skills for Health” (SfH). We shall use this example to explain the micro function it controls and show that overlapping governance that interacts with its functions concerning VET Schemes. Therefore, we shall consider briefly SfH’s own website introduction to its functions:

“Skills for Health (SfH) was established in April 2002 and licensed by DfES as the UK Sector Skills Council (SSC) for health in May of 2004. We are part of the NHS, being hosted by a Trust, but with our own Board and management.

“We cover the whole health sector – NHS, independent and voluntary employers. We are funded through the four UK health departments, SSDA, the Education Act Regulatory Bodies and the sector.

“We do not provide training directly and see education and training providers as some of our key partners.” SfH (2007)

The interesting aspect of this statement is its primary aim to: “To help the whole sector develop solutions that deliver a skilled and flexible UK workforce in order to improve health and healthcare.” Apart from the sector references, it has similar if not parallel macro- and micro-management like the LSC and the SSDA! This interesting fact is mirrored across all of the Sector Skills Councils.

This new system for the VET can be seen in the continuation of reform to many of the National vocational learning strategies and programmes. None more so than that of the Modern Apprenticeship Scheme, which had for some time been the flagship of the former TECs alongside that of its counterpart, the National Traineeship. Now formally owned by the related SSC that governs the related scheme contents, and in collaboration with the LSC in the regions, allocated funding and part-funded places are provided to employers through the network of training providers who again, are then governed, monitored and inspected by the Government Agencies, to include: the LSC, ALI, Awarding Bodies and QCA. It is also worth noting that this framework, scheme in care, we find that ownership of it is held jointly with the Care Council, another Government Agency to regulate care standards across the sector!

Whatever the MA programme or the sector it represents, all apprentices have to undertake a formal induction called the Employment Responsibilities and Rights (ERR) requirements, the health and social care industry being no exception. But, what is also fairly interesting is, to work in the Sector at any level, all employees and potential employees have to undertake the formal “Skills for Care” induction programme to the sector, its remit being extremely similar to that of “Skills for Health”:

“Working in consultation with carers, employers and service users, Skills for Care aims to modernise adult social care in England, by ensuring qualifications and standards continually adapt to meet the changing needs of people who use care services SFC.” (2007)

We have seen from the wealth of literature, research and development that to all intents and purposes despite much having been done to move the VET scheme into a model for the 21st century we have seen that we have come full circle. That the State has the controlling focus of VET progression, albeit through what appears to be a “hands off” approach, but, in hindsight it can be clearly seen through the many new public funded bodies at both the macro and micro levels, that: “ … inconsistencies and contradictions, including the responsibility for funding Workforce development to … deliver this agenda.” (Roodhouse 2006)

Under the former Conservative government, it could be seen that commercial strategies had been used to replace control of the state, and that economic market forces were utilised to ensure the best potential for economic growth and development of “wanted” VET schemes, which were, monitored and focused across an holistic approach through the operational enterprises of the TECs and the former MSC; with little or no ingrained State involvement. It is interesting to consider Conservative impact and future strategies concerning the furthering of the programmes of vocational skill-based learning at this juncture. In a recent Guardian article, it was cited that the current Conservative opposition party was prepared to consider the funding of future VET schemes alongside that of other schemes whereby the learner could potentially be able, with guidance, to use the funding given to them by the state to choose and maintain their own levels of learning and development. The former leader of the Conservative party, Michael Howard, stressed that: "Our society needs skilled craftsmen, accomplished electricians, capable plumbers and a whole host of technically trained new professionals, [and] the way to build esteem for these professions is to raise the quality and standard of education that the system provides." His spokesperson went on to state that the “grants would help to tackle the crippling skills shortages reported by employers”. But more importantly, that this grant, “would address demand for more skilled workers”. It was also made clear that vocational education had been “too fragmented and inconsistent”.

In the same article, the potential incentive was met with disdain and rejection by the former education secretary, Ruth Kelly, who stated that; “the Tory education manifesto would pull the plug on the government's adult skills budget".

But, what is even more poignant is that the article cites two important factors that are worthy of consideration for the furthering of VET systems. Firstly, “The government has emphasised the need for more graduates to serve a high-income, high-skill economy" and more importantly, the overhaul “…in England, proposed by the former Ofsted chief, Mike Tomlinson, also presumes a much bigger role for vocational education”. BBC News (2005)

Without any political bias it is clear that the future of VET Schemes, will be a consistently featured topic in the arena of the vocational and transferable skills debate, as we become more reliant on a very competitive global economy where vocational education, training and experience will have its own validity and currency in a market-driven economy.

With this debate in mind, it is clear from the plethora of growing EU directives and papers, that we will soon be heralding the commencement of an EU-wide vocational education strategy that will impact on our own economy and educational system. The current EU parliamentary debate is exploring such a strategy. In a report, The European Forum of Technical and Vocational Education and Training (EfVET) has commenced its research for the development of a framework for EU qualifications or EQF. Interestingly, the report on the initial consultations in Europe states that:

“The EQF focuses on the individual by valorising flexible, diverse and efficient ways of learning. It could stimulate lifelong learning and create a durable integration into the labour market and society in general. The EQF has to be a clear instrument, which is transparent, not only to experts, but also to the citizen.” EfVET (2005)

What is also ironic in the light of the EU preparing for what is to be seen as a qualification framework for Europeans, is that it is also clearly stated in the consultation document that it “should not become bureaucratic or a rigid system”. Which, given our own state management of VET, raises the concern: are we ready for this new onslaught of EU directives? The sobering fact that, at the close of the 2006 parliamentary session, the Parliamentary Education and Skills Committee announced that, on behalf of the Government, it is to carry out another further full review of post-16 education; the Committee already acknowledges that:

“… there are indications from Leitch’s interim report that even meeting current targets will leave England with a significant skills gaps in the future. In addition, employers often say the system ill-fits their needs. Employer investment in publicly funded training is low compared to other countries.” www.Parliament.uk (2006)

Even though, Government publications show employer satisfaction is at an optimum level for the MA VET scheme (Benchmark/DES 2006). With the current State consistently reviewing and changing systems for VET Schemes, we have to move back towards a controlling mechanism of ensuring movement through cohesion of ongoing government strategies.

This emphasis can be seen in the greater deployment of a macro-bureaucratic model for governance, which appears at close finite micro levels. This system, at best, should remain at a flexible level of fluidity to ensure that each VET scheme is specifically tailored to ensure employability of that related sector with its unique market focus and ongoing development. At best, it should be a model of excellence, like the preceding MSC and TEC systems; then, when placed alongside Government directives and models the hallmark of excellence, could be clearly seen and potentially benchmarked for future initiatives.

The concerns of the awarding bodies that provide and monitor the qualifications brokerage, are raised consistently about the level of State reform to the system. What is also clear, is that they are also finding the inconsistencies of the skills shake-up of vocational education and training systems heavy going and are currently preparing for yet another significant change in policies and procedures. This is cited in the Edexcel policy watch review report of 2005 as the second largest UK awarding body, it is a significant expression of concern. Its author Besley, states that:

“So what of 2005, another backbreaking year interspersed with a few jaw-breaking moments, new horizons with golden opportunities? Possibly, but there are some significant differences already emerging for 2005.

“The Skills area faces possibly the most intense activity of all in 2005 with a further White Paper, a global review, developments under the adult framework of qualifications and the emergence of Regional Skill Partnerships all significant.

“…the Government has commissioned the Leitch review of the long-term skill needs and priorities of business and the economy. Importantly, this review, working with the LSC and SSDA, will consider the mix and levels of skills needed in the UK for the future.” Beasley (2005)

With the voice of the awarding bodies showing some significant cynicism of the reforms programme, is it no wonder that we are moving into a realm of inconsistency and inertia as each partner at the macro- and micro-management levels of VET Schemes continues to overlap and congregate towards another mix in the formula for this once exciting area of learning and development. Surely, the time has arrived to revisit the formative years of VET and glean from their successes a formula for skills that is easier to swallow.

In retrospect, the MSC and TEC programmes were introduced into the education systems as an “attempt to improve the allegedly low quality of vocational education and training which was claimed to be handicapping commerce and industry in the competitive 1980s and 1990s (Yeomans 1996). Has the control of the State now come full circle, and yet again trying to end the bureaucratic gridlock that currently hampers the fluidity of VET Schemes?

The clarity of the socio-historic and indeed socio-economic impact of the VET Schemes has been within the States management abilities, with formative activities as a benchmark for the future. But, with the current inconsistent and bureaucratic management systems being enforced into the system by the State, we are now in a state of collaborative inertia where the excitement of collaborative advantage is receding as the skills sector tires of the continual intense management by the State. Therefore, the time has arrived to be retrospective and go back to the excitement of basics.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Anderson T & Hilary Metcalf (2003) Modern Apprenticeship Employers: Evaluation Study National Institute of Economic and Social Research
Apprenticeships Government Reports http://www.employersforapprentices.gov.uk/
The Analytical Quality Glossary http://www.qualityresearchinternational.com/glossary/vet.htm
Australian National Training Authority (ANTA), 2004, VET — What is it? Updated 22 September 2004, http://www.anta.gov.au/vetWhat.asp
Besley S (2005) “How's it all looking? An assessment of Government education policies at the start of what may be a crucial year”.Policy & Qualifications Division Edexcel Awarding Body Publications
BBC (2005) “Tories promise vocational grants” (2005) BBC Newshttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/education/
Benchmark (2006) Modern Apprenticeships - benefits and challenges - a story of success Benchmark research Limited/DES Commissioned Report.
Descy P & Westphalen S-A (1998) ‘Measuring the effectiveness of training’, Working Cedefop. ILO, 1990, Statistical Sources and Methods (Geneva, ILO).
DfES/LSC (2004) 21st century apprenticeships: Modern Apprenticeship Delivery End to End Review of the Delivery of Modern Apprenticeships Report. DfES LSC
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Pithers R T & Soden R (1999) Boosting ‘Good’ Thinking in Vocational Education and Training presentation at the 3rd International Conference “Researching Vocational Education and Training” July 14–16 1999, Bolton Institute.
FAB (2003) 21st Century Skills Realizing Our Potential Individuals, Employers, Nation. Federation of Awarding Bodies
Education and Skills Committee New Inquiries into Skills (2006) link
EfVET (2005) European Qualifications Framework(EQF) – Summary of the views of the EfVET representatives (2005) EfVET/EC.
Handy C (1993) Understanding Organisations (Fourth Edition), Penguin, London.
Huxham C (1996) (ed) Creating Collaborative Advantage, Sage, London.
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Leeds University Education online http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/
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Roodhouse S (2006) Employability and workforce development – a policy and practice dilemma for Higher Education Papers and Reports Vocational Education and Training Papers http://www.62bug.net/roodhouse/papers_and_report_vocational.htm
The Department for Education and Skills Research Centre http://www.dfes.gov.uk/research/programmeofresearch/
The Sector Skills Development Agency http://www.ssda.org.uk/ssda/
The Institute for Employment Studies (IES) http://www.employment-studies.co.uk/
The Federation of Awarding Bodies Partners http://www.awarding.org.uk/index.cfm/
The Learning and Skills Council http://www.lsc.gov.uk/
The Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) http://www.qca.org.uk/
West A (1999) Vocational education and training indicators project EU priorities and objectives related to VET, November (European Commission, European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop)
Yeomans D (1996) “Constructing vocational education: from TVEI to GNVQ” The Post-14 Research Group School of Education, University of Leeds

Sample 3

Health & Safety
a. Explain why management systems during the era of the Industrial Revolution, up to 1960, failed to cope with the prevention of accidents.
b. Explain 12 reasons why a management system may lead to an organisation failing to meet its responsibilities to manage health and safety issues adequately.
c. Explain the main characteristics of a management system that deals satisfactorily with safety and risk management issues.
d. For an organisation of your choice explain the actions that are required to satisfactorily and cost-effectively deal with six of the reasons given for failure in above.

The realm of the working environment is immaterial; health, safety and welfare should be a major aspect of the management of any organisation and, or business. Legislation provides governance, directive and for the policing of these areas within all organisations. This assignment will explore and explain some of the factual and informed actions that now provide for the health and safety of the working environment.

During the Victorian era, bespoke measures were made to ensure safety but, in retrospect, many failures were found in the workers in industrial environments, these included: mining, the cotton mills and the foundries. Working conditions were grim and also profit was placed before risk assessment and safety measures.

The government of the day had agreed to keep out of the privately owned companies. Business owners could pay whatever wages they decided, and expect workers to work in any conditions that they provided; the worker was completely at the behest of the owner. This included amongst many other factors: the problem of working hours, wages, unemployment, accidents, the conditional employment of women and children, and provision of social housing.

Children and adults were able to operate the huge machines. Workers worked a 12 to 14 hour day, under terrible conditions. It was common for workers to be apprenticed to the factory owners. The high death rate of children and women brought the involvement of social philanthropists, like Charles Booth. Disease was rife in the work place; the most widespread hazards were harmful dusts that led to asbestosis or cancer. Public pressure led to the laws that made good the worst parts of the factory system. Standards of living began to rise in England after 1840. New laws were passed in the ten years after 1840 including a law that kept track of conditions in the mines; this was the first Public Health Act.

Industries inherited poor track records of safety management until the 1960s when the Factories Act, so pioneered and advocated by Trade Unions, became active and enabled changes to be made to the working environment. Since that milestone legislation in the early 1960s we have seen a wealth of legislation and governance being proactively engaging the management of the working environment. Having considered the brief history we now consider 12 potential management failures in the area of responsibility.

Information and Communication: Failure in these two areas is often a key area of responsibility cited when things go wrong in any working environment; when the provision of clear instructions, signage, guidance and strategy for the operational areas of health and safety management are lacking, there is chaos and danger. The communication and sharing of information between employees by management is a vital tool in ensuring the safe management of a given environment. The HSE document, Managing Health and Safety: Five Steps to Success, clearly states that, managers should:

“Provide information about hazards, risks and preventive measures to employees and contractors working on your premises. Discuss health and safety regularly. Be 'visible' on health and safety.”(HSE 2003)

It is also important to ensure a sharing culture of information that encourages all employees to be part of the sharing process. This, as the HSE document cited, states that management should:

“Lead by example: demonstrate your commitment and provide clear direction - let everyone know health and safety is important. Identify people responsible for particular health and safety jobs especially where special expertise is called for, eg doing risk assessments, driving forklift trucks. Ensure that managers, supervisors and team leaders understand their responsibilities and have the time and resources to carry them out. Ensure everyone knows what they must do and how they will be held accountable - set objectives.” (HSE 2003)

Training and Continuing Professional Development: Poor, inadequate, provision for staff in these areas, has been seen as a prelude to bad practice and are endemic in some industries. This area is key to any provision of good practice across a working environment. Failure areas include poor induction of new employees and no provision for the continuation of the professional development of staff in safety practices. Managers not being trained to manage risk assessment and manual handlers not being trained annually in manual handling techniques are prime examples. The HSE document, Who needs safety training, clearly states:

“Whether you are an employer or self-employed, are you sure that you’re up to date with how to identify the hazards and control the risks from your work? … If you employ managers or supervisors they will certainly need some training. They need to know what you expect from them in terms of health and safety, and how you expect them to deliver. They need to understand your health and safety policy, where they fit in, and how you want health and safety managed. … Everyone who works for you, including self-employed people, needs to know how to work safely and without risks to health”. (HSE 2003b).

What is fairly clear from the literature is that in two specific areas management failure is seen in organisations: that they do not adequately train staff at induction, or provide for the continuation of training in the workforce to ensure continuation of good practice. A good example of this is seen within the poor provision of risk assessment practices, Personal and Protective Equipment (PPE) is a good example.

Protective Clothing, Safe Equipment and Environment: The adequate provision of PPE can be an assessment failure area or indeed a potential failure area in some industries. The workplace must be risk assessed to provide workers with suitable clothing; ensure there is safe, effective equipment to carry out working activities; and make sure that the environment is fit for purpose. The PPE regulations 1992 cite that: “… Employers have basic duties concerning the provision and use of personal protective equipment (PPE) at work” (HSE 2005). Therefore, employers must provide adequate clothing and the right safe equipment to carry out working practices.

Reporting and Compliance: The adequate reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences (RIDDOR), is also an area of concern. The RIDDOR regulations 1996 are clear in their directives that any matter that invokes any of the provisions under RIDDOR must be reported to the appropriate statutory authorities. The non-completion of an accident report on the workplace premises, and/or the adequate management procedures being in place for the negation of a worker from the workplace during illnesses is a cited problem by HSE.

Risk Assessment and Hazard Management: This is a simple but important oversight in some workplaces; this involves the wrong interpretation of the terms “risk” and “hazard”. These simple terms must be crucially understood and ingrained in the world of the manager and the worker to ensure that every aspect of the working environment is potentially, at best, risk free and where possible hazards are managed safely and effectively. The best interpretation of these terms is found in the HSE document Managing Health and Safety: Five Steps to Success:

“A hazard is something with potential to cause harm. The harm will vary in severity – some hazards may cause death, some serious illness or disability, others only cuts and bruises. Risk is the combination of the severity of harm with the likelihood of it happening.” (HSE 2003).

The poor understanding of this important area of safety often leads to poor action plans in workplaces, that provide inadequate action points, to address risks and potential hazards under the specific areas like: RIDDOR, PPE, training, CPD, etc.

Roles and Responsibilities: Role ambiguity and failing to take responsibility for action or inaction are also cited as potential areas that cause concern when dealing with the important areas of health and safety. The failure of a person being appointed as the health and safety officer or, in smaller organisations, a person knowingly having this responsibility across their working role is essential for good management. When this role area is not defined carefully and specifically with some clear management decision-making responsibilities we can find the negation of duties, or failure to take full and informed responsibility for actions, that can be life dependent or indeed threatening. The HSE clearly advises that the owner/director should:

“… allocated responsibilities for health and safety to specific people - are they clear on what they have to do and they are held accountable. … Consult and involve your staff and their representatives effectively Do your staff have sufficient information about the risks they run and the preventive measures? Do you have the right levels of expertise? Are your people properly trained?” Managing Health & Safety (2003).

More importantly in the HSE advisory document “Directors’ responsibilities for health and safety are more stringent in that it clearly outlines roles and responsibilities:

“The Chairman and/or Chief Executive have a critical role to play in ensuring risks are properly managed and that the health and safety director has the necessary competence, resources and support of other board members to carry out their functions.” (HSE 2002).

Cost and Benefit to the Organisation: The Cost and the Benefits to the Business. These areas are often a potential concern especially for either the small business owner or the profit-conscious board, especially where the benefits to the business are not always seen in the productivity or the output. Sometimes, it has been seen that employers will add training and/or PPE costs to the wage packets. Regulations states that:

“An employer cannot ask for money from an employee for PPE, whether it is returnable or not. This includes agency workers if they are legally regarded as your employees.” (HSE 2005).

In giving consideration to the fundamental characteristics of good management practices, the HSE clearly denotes five main principles for good practice. These are: policy development; organisation development; planning and implementation (informing auditing and re-planning); measuring performance; and reviewing performance. We shall consider these areas individually.

The clear and essential aspect of any provision of health and safety is a written statement that provides guidance to the workforce and management. From this “policy” document an operational procedure can be deduced and written, to include a working and evolving action plan that allows all activities to be realistic, achievable and measurable; to ensure that all within the working environment can be clearly briefed and sure of the serious management of safety issues.

The organisation itself must be completely involved in the development, and ongoing direction, of the policy, its procedures and be able to inform the revolving action plan. The HSE cites four main “Cs” that are required: competence of personnel; control of the responsibilities and accountability; and co-operation between all involved in the life of the organisation at all levels, including external stakeholders such as customers and self-employed workers. Finally, and most importantly, is communication, which must be open, honest and reflective of the practices that inform the ongoing process of health and safety.

Planning the effective strategic and organisational aspects of the health and safety policy and procedures must involve a clear undertaking of risk assessment for areas such as PPE, COSHH, RIDDOR and staff development, etc. Organisations will also have unique areas that are inclusive within the provision of planning. This may also include changing working practices, human resources strategies, environmental consideration and management of waste and emissions. What is important is that this process involves honest appraisal of practices and procedures that are affected by health and safety legislation and, where not, are seen as good practice.

Measuring performance under the written policy, procedure and action plan is essential as this will allow and organisation to decide forward action. But, essentially the organisation can be prepared to be active in monitoring actions and where things go wrong, be proactive in being reactive in a positive manner to ensure that the situation is not repeated or is better managed. The measurements can be used as targets for further planning; a good example could be the reduction in staff sick leave, or minor accidents.

Reviewing performance: is crucial for auditing and will inform any new or revolving action plan and policy and procedural review. This can again be done with the involvement of the workforce, customers and/or interested parties. Many statutory inspectors do provide action plans in most settings for remedial or compliant action. An example in the care industry being the Social Care Inspectorate, and in education settings OFSTED, Adult Learning Inspectorate in England or an awarding body’s External Verifier/Moderator.

Whatever the size or industry it is essential that good management of health and safety is seen and believable as a clear aspect of its environment. The DASH Report, a response by ROSPA, following the Government incentive: the Health and Safety Commission’s (HSC) plans for ‘Revitalizing Health and Safety at Work’ (HSC/DETR 2000) as well as the recommendations of the “Turnbull Report” (ICAEW 1999) concerning holistic business risk management, states that:

“One of the strengths of the UK approach to OS&H is the understanding that regulators and duty holders should not simply focus on control of specific hazards but should address the capability of organisations to tackle work-related risks proactively and systematically. This approach, which draws heavily on ideas in the area of quality management, involves employers having an OS&H management system comprising policies, structures and procedures which enable their organisation to ‘lock on’ to its risks and achieve continuous improvement in performance.” ROSPA (2001).

Having explained the characteristics of good practice management in health and safety cited by the HSE we move to consider six of the areas cited as potential concerns in part B, and in this respect we will use the care sector as a model of consideration. This sector has seen significant legislative changes that impact on health and safety practices.

We shall consider the areas of: Information & Communication Failure; Training & Continuing Professional Development; and Roles & Responsibilities.

Information within any working environment is essential in that, it must be provided in a format that is clearly understood. In the care settings, failure to display signage and statutory notices is often cited as a clear breach by inspectors and those engaged in ensuring compliance. These may be officers of the social services or the local health authority. Therefore it is essential that a care organisation displays statutory documents.

A care organisation that has failed to display such provisions may cost-effectively obtain related signage like: fire exit signs, fire extinguisher signs, health and safety regulations act, COSHH, RIDDOR, PPE, First Aid and Manual Handling posters to place in staff areas and public areas in a given setting. The display in the workplace of insurance policies and manual handling equipment operational instructions at the site are cited. The TUC advises employees that:

“Your employer must provide you with the following information: Health and safety law: What you should know. This should give the contact details of people who can help; their health and safety policy statement. An up-to-date Employers’ Liability (Compulsory Insurance) certificate visible in your place of work.” (HSE/TUC 2004)

The importance of good communication between employees in a care setting is essential to ensure that all cases or clients’ needs are consistently maintained and managed safely and effectively. For example, where in some settings violent clients/service users are a major part of the worker’s domain, adequate provision must be made for the safety of the employee. In this respect, good communication about the working period and its activities; must be adequately and verbally given to those taking over the shift This is commonly known as “hand over”, a system that takes place consistently in a good setting. Where this has failed, potential problems regarding safety of workers and service users are of concern. In a recent report by HSE, which is frequently provided to the sector, it was found that in care settings, the reporting of violent incidents was essential in the provision of health and safety:

“Work-related violence can have serious consequences for employers and employees. It may have damaging physical and psychological effects and victims can suffer from serious injury, anxiety and stress. The cost to employers can also be high, for example, through low staff morale and high staff turnover.” (HSE/SIM 2004).

Therefore, the given and most essential action for the management of such incidents was provided in that report as clear advice for action planning of inspecting in such care settings. It stated that:

“Inspectors should where possible, seek to develop a joint programme of visits to care homes and small independent hospitals with both CSCI and Healthcare Commission, and concentrate on risk management systems for patient handling and violence.” (HSE/SIM 2004).

Given this guidance, the care setting should ensure that their risk assessment and action plan should include measures for ensuring safety of staff; this in the main would include: duel staffing of some activities and even where the violent occurrence is beyond the scope of the care setting, re-assessment of the care plan of the service user and, where necessary, new and more appropriate facilities being found for that person.

Essential training of personnel in care settings on manual handling, first aid, and health and safety are mandatory under the Care Standards Act 2000. In settings where this provision is not provided internally by trained and qualified nursing staff, the setting should employ trainers annually for such purposes.

The health and safety action plan should reflect staff training needs; assessment of those needs; and, when completed, evidence of such undertakings. These are frequently inspected by the related regulators, as also are the training plans of each member of staff.

“The primary objective of the [inspection] programme, is to ensure adequate control of manual handling and violence related issues during inspection of management systems in small independent hospitals and care homes.” (HSE/SIM 2004)

Therefore, the key aspect for the care setting is to ensure that all personnel are effectively trained to the related standard of practice. The cost of training is a key element of funding provided to the employer by the related placing authority (NHS or Social Services), and therefore, employers cannot negate this important feature of employment. Equally, incentive schemes for training are also provided by the related sector skills councils and through the Modern Apprenticeship schemes.

Continuing Professional Development: this key area for season staff is essential in any care setting. Furthermore, the new legislation for the sector, requires that all workers are competent and at a proven educational level for the role being performed. In this respect, recent development require managers of settings to be qualified to level 4, in particular, most are required to hold or obtain the Registered Managers’ qualification which is essential for any person deemed in law to be the statutory registered manager for that setting.

On its website, Skills for Care (the sector skills council), states clearly that ”the requirements of the Care Standards Act 2000 are currently being implemented. The overall intention is to improve the quality of care provided and to ensure that services are what users want.” Skills for Care (2006)

Therefore, the essential responsibility of management in care settings is to action plan this important compliance, seeking funding incentives and, where unavailable, ensure that within their business planning the provision is clearly budgeted and accounted.

The role of the person responsible for the management of health and safety must be clear and precise. This in itself is not an easy task. In many care settings this responsibility falls on the key manager, or matron. Anchor Homes, one of the largest providers of eldercare in the UK, was recently cited for good practice in a case study by HSE. It is to this study that we seek some understanding of such a demanding role. The Director, Barbara Laing, took personal control of the health and safety management to ensure that she understood and was able to ensure good practice prior to ensuring that her care home managers, some 105, were clear in the role they were contracted to perform. In her incentive she:

… “Focused on health and safety to ensure that the business got value for money from its investment in safety. Following training in health and safety management she took direct responsibility for safety in the business and led a review of safety management, clearly communicating to her Managers that she expected them to manage health and safety directly and cost effectively.” (HSE/Anchor nd).

This incentive by the director ensured that managers would not have problems with role ambiguity and that her “hands on” approach “ensured that managers at all levels in her business are aware of their role in achieving suitable health and safety standards.” Jill Barlow, Head of Property & Health and Safety Services (HSE/Anchor nd). This incentive is a good example of sound practice and potentially is a key action point for any would-be manager of such a setting or, indeed, director.

Responsibilities. It is more essential to define responsibilities to ensure that communication is maintained and reporting strategies and procedures move across the organisation strategically. Therefore, making sure that a developed job specification is defined and measurable is an essential tool for health and safety managers. Or, where other responsibilities rest on the post holder, those health and safety responsibilities are clearly defined and are easy to assimilate as key responsibilities. Again, we will use Anchor Homes’ Director as a point of reference of good practice:

“Barbara is very active in managing health & safety; clearly communicating her expectations to her management team and below, providing support in achieving them, and visibly demonstrating her personal commitment to monitoring and further improving safety within her business.” Sue Edwards, Head of Operations (HSE/Anchor nd).

What is also significant is that as well as being the director she sees clearly the defined role of strategically managing this area of responsibility as a key business plus ” Agrees health & safety strategies, processes and standards with Board and Health & Safety Team” and again provides clear incentive “Signing ‘safe home’ awards and sending personal notes to Managers who achieve high standards” and directive “Ensures that appropriate health & safety monitoring is in place” and clearly ensuring that her managers know their operational duties as health and safety officers within their care settings, alongside other responsibilities:

“The Head of Operations now has formal responsibility for directing health & safety in the business, while Barbara directs the overall strategy. Home Managers are formally responsible for safety in the homes. Residents and staff are consulted about acceptable levels of risk”. (HSE/Anchor nd)

The management of health and safety is a growing and evolving area that will not diminish as society continues to explore better ways to ensure the health, safety and welfare of the working environment. The care industry is a model that will provoke and inform debate as it continues to move closer to stricter governance, mandated by government towards a more holistic regulated industry. In conclusion, the words of Barbara Laing, seem appropriate: directors of care organisations should: “Think seriously about not only the governance issues, but also the business benefits in taking direct control and interest in health & safety.” (HSE/Anchor nd).

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